Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
GNDU Most Repeated (Important) Questions
B.A. 3rd Semester
PHILOSOPHY (Deductive Logic & Applied Ethics)
Based on GNDU Question Paper Trend (2022–2024)
Must-Prepare Questions (80–100% Probability)
SECTION–A (Logic – Basic Concepts & Foundations)
1. Definition, Nature & Utility of Logic
Appeared in: 2022 (Q1a)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Logic is a foundational question — appears in almost every paper variation in
short or long form.
2. Concept of Terms and Their Significance in Logic
Appeared in: 2022 (Q1b)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
3. Inverse Relation Between Connotation and Denotation
Appeared in: 2022 (Q1c)
Probability for 2025: (90%)
4. Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Inference
Appeared in: 2022 (Q1d)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
5. Laws of Thought – Meaning, Explanation & Justification
Appeared in: 2022 (Q2)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Highly conceptual and often repeated as a long-answer question.
SECTION–B (Proposition, Syllogism & Reasoning)
6. Concept of Proposition & Square of Opposition
Appeared in: 2022 (Q3)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
7. Mediate Inference – Nature, Rules & Figures of Categorical Syllogism
Appeared in: 2022 (Q4)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
SECTION–C (Applied Ethics & Moral Philosophy)
8. Difference Between Ethics and Applied Ethics
Appeared in: 2022 (Q5a)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
9. Deontological Approach (Kantian Ethics)
Appeared in: 2022 (Q5b), (Linked with Q6)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
10. Teleological Approach to Ethical Problems
Appeared in: 2022 (Q5c)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
11. Virtues and Values in the Bhagavad Gita
Appeared in: 2022 (Q5d)
Probability for 2025: (90%)
12. Kant’s Moral Ideas & Concept of Categorical Imperative
Appeared in: 2022 (Q6)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
A classic question in Applied Ethics — highly probable for repetition.
SECTION–D (Contemporary Ethical Issues)
13. Medical Ethics – Euthanasia & Moral Concerns
Appeared in: 2022 (Q7)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
14. Legal Ethics – Law and Human Value System
Appeared in: 2022 (Q8)
Probability for 2025: (90%)
2025 Smart Prediction Table
(Based on GNDU 2022 Paper Pattern)
No.
Question Topic
Years
Appeared
Probability for 2025
1
Definition & Utility of Logic
2022
(100%)
2
Concept of Terms & Significance
2022
(100%)
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
No.
Question Topic
Years
Appeared
Probability for 2025
3
Deductive vs Inductive Inference
2022
(100%)
4
Laws of Thought
2022
(100%)
5
Proposition & Square of Opposition
2022
(100%)
6
Categorical Syllogism – Rules & Figures
2022
(100%)
7
Difference Between Ethics & Applied
Ethics
2022
(100%)
8
Deontological & Teleological
Approaches
2022
(100%)
9
Kant’s Categorical Imperative
2022
(100%)
10
Medical Ethics (Euthanasia)
2022
(100%)
11
Legal Ethics & Value System
2022
(90%)
2025 GUARANTEED QUESTIONS (100% Appearance Trend)
Top 7 Must-Prepare Topics
1. Laws of Thought – Meaning and Justification
2. Deductive vs Inductive Inference – Key Differences
3. Proposition & Square of Opposition
4. Categorical Syllogism – Rules and Figures
5. Kant’s Moral Philosophy and Categorical Imperative
6. Deontological and Teleological Approaches to Ethics
7. Medical Ethics with Reference to Euthanasia
BONUS HIGH-PRIORITY (80–90%) QUESTIONS
8. Definition and Utility of Logic
9. Concept of Terms and Their Significance
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
10. Legal Ethics – Role of Law in Protecting Human Values
11. Virtues and Values in the Bhagavad Gita
GNDU Most Repeated (Important) Answers
B.A. 3rd Semester
PHILOSOPHY (Deductive Logic & Applied Ethics)
Based on GNDU Question Paper Trend (2022–2024)
Must-Prepare Questions (80–100% Probability)
SECTION–A (Logic – Basic Concepts & Foundations)
1. Definition, Nature & Utility of Logic
Appeared in: 2022 (Q1a)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Logic is a foundational question — appears in almost every paper variation in short
or long form.
Ans: Logic – The Compass of Human Thought
Imagine a young explorer, Aarav, standing at the edge of a dense, mysterious forest. He
has a map, a compass, and a sense of direction, yet the path ahead looks confusing. At
every step, he faces choices: left or right, uphill or downhill, across streams or around
them. What helps him navigate safely? Not luck, not guesswork — but a method, a way
of thinking that guides his decisions. In life, that guiding tool is logic.
Logic is like that compass — it helps humans move through the dense forest of thoughts,
ideas, and decisions without getting lost in confusion or error.
Definition of Logic
To understand logic clearly, let’s step into the world of scholars and philosophers.
Logic can be defined in simple words as:
“The science or art of reasoning correctly, systematically, and objectively.”
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
It studies the principles of correct thinking, helping us distinguish between valid
arguments and faulty reasoning, between truth and error.
Imagine you are solving a mystery — you gather clues, analyze them carefully, and reach
a conclusion. Logic is the method that ensures your conclusion is reliable, not just a
random guess.
Philosophers also define logic in slightly different ways:
• Aristotle, the father of logic, called it “the science of reasoning” — focusing on
methods to reason correctly.
• Modern thinkers often describe logic as a tool to think clearly, make decisions,
and solve problems effectively.
The Nature of Logic
Now, let’s explore the nature of logic — what makes it so special and universal. Logic is
not a thing you can touch or see, but it is ever-present in human thought.
1. Universal – Logic is applicable everywhere. Whether you are a scientist, a farmer,
a student, or a shopkeeper, logical thinking helps in making decisions. It is not
limited to books or classrooms. For instance, when a farmer decides which crops
to sow based on weather and soil, he is using logic.
2. Systematic – Logic follows a structured method. It is like building a house brick by
brick. You cannot place the roof before laying the foundation. Similarly, in
reasoning, premises lead to conclusions in an orderly way.
3. Objective – Logic is impartial. It does not depend on personal likes, dislikes, or
feelings. Imagine two friends arguing about who will win a race. Logic doesn’t
care about friendship or bias; it evaluates facts, evidence, and probability.
4. Science of Reasoning – Logic studies the laws of thought: principles like the law
of non-contradiction (a thing cannot be true and false at the same time) and the
law of identity (something is what it is). These principles guide valid thinking.
5. Both Theoretical and Practical – Logic is theoretical because it studies reasoning
principles, and practical because it is applied in daily life, problem-solving, and
decision-making.
Utility of Logic
Now comes the exciting part — why logic matters so much in life. Imagine a world
without logic. Every decision would be a guess. Every argument would be a clash of
opinions without clarity. Confusion and chaos would reign. Logic is like a lighthouse
guiding ships in a stormy sea. Let’s see its practical utility:
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
1. Logic in Everyday Life
Every day, humans make thousands of decisions — from choosing what to eat, to
planning a journey, to deciding how to invest money. Logic helps us evaluate options,
weigh pros and cons, and make rational choices.
For example:
A student deciding between two colleges will compare faculty, facilities, fees, and
location. By reasoning through these factors logically, the student reaches a decision
that is rational and suitable, not impulsive.
2. Logic in Education and Learning
Logic is the backbone of education. Whether learning science, history, or mathematics,
reasoning helps understand concepts deeply, solve problems efficiently, and analyze
information critically.
Consider mathematics: every theorem, proof, or formula is a product of logical thinking.
Without logic, even the most brilliant ideas would remain confused thoughts,
impossible to communicate or apply.
3. Logic in Argumentation and Debate
Imagine two people debating a social issue. Without logic, their debate would be full of
emotional statements, opinions, and personal attacks. Logic introduces structure,
clarity, and credibility. Arguments supported by facts and reasoning are respected;
illogical claims are easily dismissed.
For example:
• Claim: “Pollution is bad.” (opinion)
• Logical argument: “Pollution causes respiratory diseases and environmental
damage; therefore, it must be controlled.” (supported by reasoning and
evidence)
4. Logic in Science and Technology
Science is impossible without logic. Every experiment, observation, or innovation
depends on cause and effect, analysis, and deduction. Logic allows scientists to form
hypotheses, test them, and draw reliable conclusions.
Think of modern inventions — computers, smartphones, medicines. Every step, from
idea to execution, is guided by logical thinking. Logic is the silent architect behind every
breakthrough.
5. Logic in Law and Justice
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
In courts, logic is the foundation of justice. Judges and lawyers reason carefully,
evaluate evidence, and apply laws. A fair judgment depends on logical evaluation, not
personal opinion. Imagine a world where logic didn’t guide law — chaos and injustice
would rule.
6. Logic in Personal Development
On a personal level, logic trains the mind to think clearly, analyze situations, and avoid
errors. It reduces impulsive decisions, misunderstandings, and conflicts. A logically
trained mind is more confident, rational, and self-aware.
Logic as a Storyteller
To truly understand the utility of logic, think of it as a storyteller. Life presents us with
puzzles, mysteries, and choices. Logic narrates the story, showing how each event leads
to another, what actions are wise, and which paths are dangerous. It doesn’t impose; it
illuminates. And once we learn its language, life becomes a guided journey rather than a
chaotic drift.
Conclusion – The Gift of Logic
Logic is humanity’s compass, lighthouse, and teacher rolled into one. Its definition
reminds us it is the science of reasoning. Its nature reveals that it is universal,
systematic, objective, and practical. Its utility shows why it is indispensable — from daily
life to science, education, law, and personal growth.
Just as Aarav navigates through the forest safely using his map and compass, humans
navigate the world of thoughts, challenges, and decisions with logic. It is not a luxury; it
is a necessity for every intelligent mind.
In short, logic is not just a subject to study in books. It is a living tool, guiding us to think
clearly, act wisely, and live meaningfully. The more we practice it, the brighter our path
becomes, and the fewer mistakes we make.
By nurturing logic in our minds, we embrace a gift that transforms confusion into clarity,
chaos into order, and opinion into reasoned truth.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
2. Concept of Terms and Their Significance in Logic
Appeared in: 2022 (Q1b)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Ans: Concept of Terms and Their Significance in Logic
A Fresh Beginning
Imagine you are in a courtroom. The lawyer stands up and says: “All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.”
The judge nods, the jury understands, and the case moves forward. But pause for a
moment—what made this argument so clear and convincing? It wasn’t just the words. It
was the logical structure behind them. And at the heart of that structure lies something
very simple, yet very powerful: the concept of terms.
In logic, terms are like the building blocks of thought. Just as bricks build a house, terms
build arguments. Without them, reasoning collapses. With them, reasoning becomes
sharp, precise, and reliable.
Let’s now explore the concept of terms and their significance in logic—not as dry
definitions, but as a story of how human beings learned to think clearly, argue
effectively, and discover truth.
Chapter 1: What Is a Term in Logic?
In everyday language, a “term” might mean a word or phrase. But in logic, it has a
special meaning.
• A term is a word or group of words that can stand for a thing, concept, or class of
things.
• It is the basic unit of thought in logic, used in propositions and arguments.
For example:
• In the statement “All men are mortal,” the terms are men and mortal.
• In “Socrates is a man,” the terms are Socrates and man.
Terms are not just words—they are symbols of ideas. They connect language to
thought.
Chapter 2: Types of Terms – The Characters of Logic’s Story
Just like a story has different characters, logic has different types of terms. Let’s meet
them.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
1. Singular Terms
• Refer to one specific object.
• Example: Socrates, Delhi, The Sun.
• They point to a unique individual.
2. General Terms
• Refer to a class or category.
• Example: Man, City, Planet.
• They apply to many individuals at once.
3. Concrete Terms
• Refer to things that exist physically.
• Example: Tree, Dog, House.
4. Abstract Terms
• Refer to qualities or ideas.
• Example: Honesty, Beauty, Courage.
5. Positive and Negative Terms
• Positive: Express what something is (brave, kind).
• Negative: Express what something is not (cowardly, unkind).
6. Relative Terms
• Express a relation between two things.
• Example: Father (implies child), Teacher (implies student).
Each type of term plays a role in building logical statements, just like characters play
roles in a drama.
Chapter 3: Terms in Propositions – The Grammar of Thought
A proposition is a statement that affirms or denies something. And every proposition
has three parts:
1. Subject Term (S) – what we are talking about.
2. Predicate Term (P) – what we are saying about it.
3. Copula – the link between subject and predicate (usually “is” or “are”).
Example: “All men are mortal.”
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
• Subject Term = Men
• Predicate Term = Mortal
• Copula = Are
Without terms, propositions cannot exist. Without propositions, arguments cannot
exist. Terms are the alphabet of logic.
Chapter 4: The Significance of Terms in Logic
Why are terms so important? Let’s explore their significance step by step.
1. Clarity of Thought
Terms give precision to ideas. Instead of vague feelings, we use clear terms like justice,
democracy, triangle. This makes reasoning sharp.
2. Foundation of Arguments
Every argument is built from propositions, and every proposition is built from terms.
Without terms, logic has no foundation.
3. Avoiding Fallacies
Many logical fallacies arise from confusing terms. For example:
• “All banks are beside rivers. This is a bank. So it must be beside a river.” Here, the
term bank is used in two different senses (financial institution vs. riverbank).
Clear terms prevent such errors.
4. Communication of Knowledge
Terms allow us to share ideas. Without them, knowledge would remain locked in
individual minds.
5. Scientific Progress
Science depends on precise definitions (terms). For example, defining atom, gravity,
evolution allowed scientists to build theories.
Terms are not just academic—they are the tools of human progress.
Chapter 5: Historical Development – From Aristotle to Modern Logic
The concept of terms has a long history.
Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
• Called the “Father of Logic.”
• Developed syllogistic logic, where arguments are built from terms.
• Example:
o All men are mortal.
o Socrates is a man.
o Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Medieval Logicians
• Expanded Aristotle’s ideas.
• Focused on categorical propositions and the role of terms.
Modern Logic
• With symbolic logic, terms became more abstract (variables, constants).
• Example: ∀x (Man(x) → Mortal(x)) Here, Man(x) and Mortal(x) are terms in
symbolic form.
From Aristotle to modern times, terms have remained the core of logical reasoning.
Chapter 6: Examples in Daily Life – Logic in Action
Logic is not just for philosophers—it’s everywhere.
Example 1: Shopping
• Proposition: “All discounts save money. This offer is a discount. Therefore, it saves
money.”
• Terms: discount, money, offer.
Example 2: Medicine
• Proposition: “All antibiotics fight infection. Penicillin is an antibiotic. Therefore, it
fights infection.”
• Terms: antibiotic, infection, penicillin.
Example 3: Law
• Proposition: “All thefts are crimes. This act is theft. Therefore, it is a crime.”
• Terms: theft, crime, act.
Terms make reasoning practical and universal.
Chapter 7: Common Mistakes with Terms
Even though terms are simple, they can be misused.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
1. Ambiguity – Using the same term in different senses. (Bank example).
2. Vagueness – Using unclear terms like thing, stuff, nice.
3. Overgeneralization – Using terms too broadly. (All politicians are corrupt).
4. Emotional Terms – Using terms that appeal to feelings instead of reason.
(Traitor, hero).
Good logic requires clear, consistent, and precise terms.
Chapter 8: Why Students Should Care
For students, understanding terms is not just about passing exams. It’s about:
• Writing clear essays.
• Making strong arguments in debates.
• Avoiding confusion in reasoning.
• Building a foundation for philosophy, mathematics, and science.
Mastering terms is like learning the alphabet of rational thought.
A Humanized Conclusion
Terms may look small, but they carry the weight of thought. They are the bridge
between language and logic, between words and ideas, between individuals and society.
When we say “All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal,” we
are not just repeating an old example—we are witnessing the power of terms to create
clarity, truth, and understanding.
3. Inverse Relation Between Connotation and Denotation
Appeared in: 2022 (Q1c)
Probability for 2025: (90%)
Ans: Inverse Relation Between Connotation and Denotation
Imagine you are walking through a bustling street market. Everywhere you look, there
are signs, words, and labels. A shopkeeper shouts, “Fresh apple!” A child looks at it and
thinks of a juicy, red fruit. A poet walking by sees the same word and suddenly imagines
innocence, temptation, or even knowledge — like in the story of Adam and Eve.
This simple moment is actually the key to understanding the fascinating concept of
connotation and denotation — and how they sometimes have an inverse relationship.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Let’s take this journey step by step, as if we are uncovering a secret story behind every
word.
Step 1: Understanding Denotation – Words as Their Literal Self
First, imagine words as plain, straightforward people. They say exactly what they mean,
no hidden feelings, no extra meanings. This is denotation — the literal, dictionary
definition of a word.
For example:
• The word “snake” literally denotes a long, slithering reptile.
• The word “rose” literally denotes a type of flowering plant.
Denotation is like a photograph — it captures the object as it is, without adding any
emotion or personal interpretation. In our street market, when the shopkeeper says
“apple,” the denotation is simple: it is a fruit you can eat.
Denotation is the anchor of language. Without it, communication would be impossible,
because everyone needs to understand the basic, agreed-upon meaning of words.
Step 2: Understanding Connotation – Words with Feelings and Associations
Now, imagine the same words walking into an art gallery. Suddenly, they are no longer
just literal objects. They carry emotions, memories, or ideas. This is connotation — the
emotional or cultural association of a word, beyond its literal meaning.
Using the same examples:
• Snake: Besides being a reptile, it can symbolize danger, betrayal, or temptation.
• Rose: Besides being a flower, it can symbolize love, beauty, or even secrecy (“sub
rosa”).
Connotation is subjective. It changes depending on culture, experience, or context. A
snake might seem scary to a farmer but sacred to a worshipper of Lord Shiva. A rose
might remind a lover of romance, or a gardener of spring planting.
In short, connotation is like a story or memory attached to a word — it is alive,
emotional, and full of shades.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Step 3: When Connotation and Denotation Move in Opposite Directions
Now, here’s where the story gets exciting. Sometimes, denotation and connotation
move in opposite directions — this is called an inverse relationship.
Think of it as a seesaw:
• On one side is denotation — the literal meaning.
• On the other side is connotation — the emotional meaning.
When one side goes up, the other may go down. Let’s explore some examples.
Example 1: “Cheap”
• Denotation: Low in cost or price.
• Connotation: Inferior in quality, low-class, or undesirable.
Here, the literal meaning seems positive — affordable, good for the budget — but the
emotional or cultural association is often negative. The inverse relationship is clear:
what is neutral or positive in denotation becomes negative in connotation.
Example 2: “Thin”
• Denotation: Having little thickness.
• Connotation: Can imply frailty, weakness, or illness, rather than simply being
slim.
Again, a straightforward description in denotation can carry a negative emotional impact
in connotation.
Example 3: “Discipline”
• Denotation: Training to obey rules or maintain order.
• Connotation: Sometimes evokes fear, oppression, or harshness, rather than the
neutral idea of training.
Here, the literal meaning is positive or neutral, but connotation can be negative,
showing an inverse relationship.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Step 4: Why This Inverse Relationship Matters
Imagine you are a writer, a speaker, or even a teacher. Words are your tools, and
understanding this inverse relationship is like holding a magic key.
1. It prevents misunderstandings: Knowing that a word’s connotation might differ
from its literal meaning helps you communicate more carefully. For example,
calling a low-cost product “cheap” might offend customers — “affordable” could
be safer.
2. It enriches language: Writers and poets use this tension to create depth. A
“snake” in a poem can mean betrayal, danger, or transformation, even if literally
it is just an animal.
3. It reflects culture and emotions: Words carry history, tradition, and emotion.
Their connotations reveal what society values, fears, or admires.
Step 5: A Story to Illustrate the Concept
Let’s bring this to life with a simple story.
There was a village teacher named Meera, who wanted to teach her students about
words. She picked a word: “Home.”
• Denotatively, a home is simply a place where people live.
• Connotatively, it is warmth, love, safety, memories of childhood, and family
gatherings.
Then she picked another word: “Cottage.”
• Denotatively, a cottage is a small house.
• Connotatively, it might suggest charm, simplicity, or even poverty, depending on
who interprets it.
Here’s the twist: Some students thought a cottage was cozy and lovely; others thought it
meant small and uncomfortable. The denotation was stable — a small house — but the
connotation varied, showing how the emotional meaning can sometimes move away
from the literal meaning, or even seem opposite depending on context.
This story captures the essence of the inverse relationship: one word, one literal
meaning, many emotional directions.
Step 6: How to Spot This Inverse Relationship
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
To understand the inverse relationship in real life:
1. Ask: What does the word literally mean? (Denotation)
2. Ask: How do people feel about this word? (Connotation)
3. Compare: If the feelings are opposite to the literal meaning, you have found the
inverse relationship.
Example:
Word
Denotation
Connotation (Emotional)
Cheap
Low in cost
Low-quality, undesirable
Old
Not new
Wise or frail
Skinny
Very thin
Fragile, unhealthy
Courageous
Brave
Risky, reckless (sometimes)
This simple table shows that words are not just words — they carry a story beyond
their dictionary definition.
Step 7: Conclusion – The Beauty of Language
The inverse relationship between connotation and denotation reminds us that language
is alive. Words are not just tools for communication; they are carriers of emotion,
culture, and imagination. A single word can be both neutral and emotionally charged,
literal and symbolic.
In literature, speeches, advertising, and even daily conversations, this relationship
shapes meaning, persuasion, and expression. Understanding it allows us to choose our
words wisely, avoid misunderstandings, and appreciate the subtle artistry of language.
4. Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Inference
Appeared in: 2022 (Q1d)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Ans: Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Inference
Picture yourself sitting under a tree on a warm afternoon. A friend points to the ground
and says: “Look, every time I drop this apple, it falls down. So, I think all apples must fall
to the ground.” That’s one way of reasoning—starting from repeated experiences and
moving to a general conclusion.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Now imagine another friend saying: “All fruits are products of plants. An apple is a fruit.
Therefore, an apple must be a product of a plant.” That’s another way of reasoning—
starting from a general truth and applying it to a specific case.
The first friend is using inductive inference. The second is using deductive inference.
Both are ways of thinking, both are powerful, but they work in opposite directions.
Let’s now explore the difference between deductive and inductive inference—not as
dry definitions, but as a story of how human beings reason, argue, and discover truth.
Chapter 1: What Is Inference?
Before we compare, let’s understand the word inference.
• Inference means drawing a conclusion from given facts or premises.
• It is the bridge between what we know and what we come to know.
For example:
• Premise: All men are mortal.
• Premise: Socrates is a man.
• Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.
Here, the conclusion is not directly stated in the premises, but it follows logically. That’s
inference.
Inference is the engine of logic—it drives our thinking forward.
Chapter 2: Deductive Inference – From General to Particular
Definition
Deductive inference is reasoning that moves from general principles to specific
conclusions. If the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.
It is sometimes called top-down reasoning.
Example
1. All birds have feathers.
2. A sparrow is a bird.
3. Therefore, a sparrow has feathers.
Here, the conclusion is certain because it follows necessarily from the premises.
Features of Deduction
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
• Moves from general to particular.
• Conclusion is logically necessary.
• If premises are true, conclusion cannot be false.
• Used in mathematics, geometry, and formal logic.
Everyday Example
• Law: All thefts are crimes.
• Fact: This act is theft.
• Conclusion: This act is a crime.
Deduction is like a mathematical proof—precise, certain, and unshakable.
Chapter 3: Inductive Inference – From Particular to General
Definition
Inductive inference is reasoning that moves from specific observations to general
conclusions. The conclusion is probable, not certain.
It is sometimes called bottom-up reasoning.
Example
1. The sun rose today.
2. The sun rose yesterday.
3. The sun has risen every day in memory.
4. Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow.
Here, the conclusion is likely, but not guaranteed.
Features of Induction
• Moves from particular to general.
• Conclusion is probable, not certain.
• Based on observation and experience.
• Used in science, research, and daily life.
Everyday Example
• Observation: Every swan I have seen is white.
• Conclusion: All swans are white. (But later, black swans were discovered in
Australia—showing induction can be wrong.)
Induction is like science—based on evidence, open to revision.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Chapter 4: Key Differences Between Deduction and Induction
Let’s now compare them side by side.
Aspect
Deductive Inference
Inductive Inference
Direction
General → Particular
Particular → General
Certainty
Conclusion is certain if
premises are true
Conclusion is probable, not certain
Basis
Logic and necessity
Observation and experience
Example
All men are mortal → Socrates
is mortal
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle are mortal → All
men are mortal
Use
Mathematics, law, formal logic
Science, research, everyday reasoning
Risk
If premises are true, no risk of
error
Even with true premises, conclusion may
be false
Deduction gives certainty, induction gives probability.
Chapter 5: How They Work Together
Though different, deduction and induction are not enemies—they are partners in
reasoning.
• Science begins with induction: observing facts, forming general laws.
• Then it uses deduction: applying laws to predict specific outcomes.
Example:
• Induction: After many experiments, scientists conclude that metals expand when
heated.
• Deduction: If iron is a metal, then iron will expand when heated.
Induction discovers, deduction applies.
Chapter 6: Historical Perspective
Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Called the “Father of Logic.”
• Developed syllogistic deduction.
Francis Bacon (1561–1626)
• Advocated inductive reasoning as the basis of science.
• Said we must observe nature and generalize.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Modern Science
• Uses both: induction for discovery, deduction for testing.
Human progress is built on the dance of deduction and induction.
Chapter 7: Examples in Daily Life
Deductive Example
• Rule: All fruits grow on plants.
• Fact: Mango is a fruit.
• Conclusion: Mango grows on a plant.
Inductive Example
• Observation: Every mango I’ve eaten is sweet.
• Conclusion: All mangoes are sweet. (But some mangoes are sour—so induction is
not certain.)
We use both forms of reasoning every day—without even realizing it.
Chapter 8: Strengths and Weaknesses
Deduction
• Strength: Gives certainty.
• Weakness: If premises are wrong, conclusion collapses.
Induction
• Strength: Expands knowledge, discovers new truths.
• Weakness: Always uncertain, open to exceptions.
Deduction is like a safe bridge—strong if built on solid ground. Induction is like
exploration—risky, but it discovers new lands.
Conclusion
Reasoning is the art of being human. Sometimes we need the certainty of deduction—
like in law, mathematics, or logic. Sometimes we need the flexibility of induction—like
in science, discovery, and daily life.
Deduction is the lamp that shows us clarity. Induction is the path that leads us forward.
Together, they make us thinkers, explorers, and creators.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
So the next time you argue with a friend, ask yourself: Am I reasoning like a detective
(deduction), or like a scientist (induction)? Because in that awareness lies the beauty of
logic.
5. Laws of Thought – Meaning, Explanation & Justification
Appeared in: 2022 (Q2)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Highly conceptual and often repeated as a long-answer question.
Ans: Laws of Thought – Meaning, Explanation & Justification
Picture this: a young philosopher named Aryan sits under a sprawling banyan tree in a
quiet courtyard, pondering the mysteries of the mind. He notices how he can think
clearly about some problems, yet sometimes gets confused or contradicts himself. He
wonders, “Is there a rulebook for thinking? Are there laws that guide my thoughts so I
don’t get lost in contradictions?”
Welcome to the fascinating world of Laws of Thought — the invisible rules that guide
human reasoning, ensuring that our thinking is logical, consistent, and meaningful. Just
like the rules of a game help players play fairly and strategically, the laws of thought help
our mind reason clearly.
Meaning of Laws of Thought
At its simplest, Laws of Thought are basic principles that govern rational thinking. They
are universal, eternal, and necessary. Unlike laws of the physical world, which we
observe with our senses, the laws of thought are abstract truths that exist in our
reasoning itself. They tell us what is logically possible and what is not.
Think of them as the grammar of the mind. Just like we cannot form meaningful
sentences without following grammatical rules, we cannot think logically without
following these laws. They ensure that our conclusions are sound, our arguments are
valid, and our reasoning is reliable.
The famous philosopher Aristotle, the father of logic, was the first to formalize these
laws. He noticed that no matter what you are thinking about, your thoughts follow
certain patterns — and if these patterns are violated, your reasoning becomes
meaningless or contradictory.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
The Three Fundamental Laws of Thought
Philosophers identify three fundamental laws of thought. Each law is simple in
expression but profound in its implications. Let’s explore them as if we are observing
Aryan reasoning in real life:
1. Law of Identity
Aryan thinks: “I am me. I cannot be anyone else at the same time.”
The Law of Identity states:
“Whatever is, is. Everything is identical to itself.”
In simple words, every object or idea is exactly what it is and not something else. For
example:
• A tree is a tree, not a chair.
• Fire is fire, not water.
• “Honesty” is honesty, not dishonesty.
This law ensures clarity in thought. If we do not know what something is, we cannot
reason about it. It’s like trying to solve a puzzle without knowing the shape of the pieces.
Justification:
Without the law of identity, reasoning collapses. If a statement could be both true and
false at the same time, logic would be impossible. Imagine Aryan trying to argue: “This
book is both a book and not a book at the same time.” Confusion would reign, and no
meaningful discussion could happen.
2. Law of Non-Contradiction
Now Aryan observes two birds on a branch. One is black, the other white. He says: “A
bird cannot be black and not black at the same time.”
The Law of Non-Contradiction states:
“No statement can be both true and false at the same time in the same sense.”
In other words, contradictions cannot exist in reality or in valid reasoning. A thing
cannot both be and not be simultaneously.
For example:
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
• “The sun is shining” and “The sun is not shining” cannot both be true at the same
time.
• “Water is wet” and “Water is not wet” cannot both be true simultaneously.
Justification:
The law of non-contradiction is crucial because without it, every argument becomes
meaningless. If contradictions were allowed, we could “prove” anything. For example,
Aryan could say: “Since contradictions exist, I can be both at home and away at the same
time.” Clearly, this is absurd. The law protects truth and rationality.
3. Law of Excluded Middle
Aryan now contemplates: “Either I am awake, or I am asleep. There is no middle state
where I am both and neither.”
The Law of Excluded Middle states:
“Every statement is either true or false. There is no third option.”
It means that any proposition must either hold or not hold; there is no neutral or in-
between truth.
For example:
• “It is raining” is either true or false. There is no middle truth like “partially true in
a mysterious way.”
• “This door is closed” is either true or false — it cannot be in a magical undefined
state.
Justification:
The law of excluded middle ensures that reasoning leads to definite conclusions. If there
were no such law, decisions, judgments, and science itself would be impossible. Aryan
could never determine whether to carry an umbrella or not if rain was “sometimes
true.” The law provides certainty and decisiveness.
Why These Laws Matter
Aryan now realizes that these laws are more than abstract rules — they shape everyday
life:
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
1. Decision-Making: When we follow these laws, we can make clear choices. For
example, if a student follows the law of non-contradiction, they cannot claim, “I
studied and did not study at the same time.”
2. Communication: The laws allow us to express ideas clearly. Misunderstandings
occur when these laws are ignored.
3. Science and Knowledge: Science itself relies on these laws. Without them,
experiments, proofs, and reasoning would be meaningless.
4. Philosophy and Ethics: When discussing moral questions like justice or honesty,
these laws prevent confusion and allow rational debate.
In short, the laws of thought are the foundation of human reason. Without them,
thinking would be chaotic, arguments meaningless, and knowledge impossible.
Story Illustration – The Kingdom of Logic
Let’s visualize a small story to understand their role:
Imagine a kingdom where everyone can say anything, even contradictory things. One
day, the king announces: “All citizens must pay taxes, and not pay taxes at the same
time.” Chaos ensues — no one knows what to do, merchants argue endlessly, and the
kingdom falls into disorder.
Now imagine another kingdom where the laws of thought are followed:
• Everyone knows exactly what is required (Law of Identity).
• No contradictory commands exist (Law of Non-Contradiction).
• Every decision has a clear yes or no (Law of Excluded Middle).
This kingdom thrives, decisions are clear, and peace reigns. Similarly, the laws of thought
bring order and clarity to human reasoning.
Criticism and Defense of the Laws
Some modern philosophers question whether these laws are absolute. For example, in
quantum mechanics, particles can exist in superpositions, which seems to challenge the
law of excluded middle.
But defenders argue:
• The laws of thought govern human reasoning, not physical reality.
• Even in quantum physics, when we measure a particle, it is either here or there
— the law still holds for human understanding.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Thus, these laws remain justified and essential as rules for rational thinking. They are
timeless, universal, and necessary for any discussion, debate, or learning.
Conclusion – The Guiding Stars of the Mind
Aryan finally smiles, feeling enlightened. He understands that the laws of thought are
invisible guiding stars. They are simple yet profound:
1. Law of Identity: Know what things are.
2. Law of Non-Contradiction: Avoid contradictions.
3. Law of Excluded Middle: Accept that statements are either true or false.
These laws are not just philosophical rules; they are practical tools for everyday
reasoning, learning, and decision-making. From solving a math problem to debating
ethics, from conducting science to writing essays — the laws of thought guide every
step.
Just like a lighthouse guides sailors through storms, these laws guide our minds through
the sea of ideas, helping us think clearly, reason logically, and act wisely.
SECTION–B (Proposition, Syllogism & Reasoning)
6. Concept of Proposition & Square of Opposition
Appeared in: 2022 (Q3)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Ans: The Concept of Proposition & the Square of Opposition
Imagine walking into a magical classroom where every idea is alive, and every statement
you make becomes a character in a story. This is the world of logic, a world where clarity
rules and confusion has no home. Here, we meet our two fascinating heroes: the
Proposition and the Square of Opposition.
Once upon a time, long before calculators and computers existed, philosophers and
thinkers wanted to understand how humans reason correctly. They observed that when
we argue or discuss, we often use statements — “The sky is blue” or “All birds can fly.”
But not every statement is useful for reasoning; some are true, some false, and some
just opinions. To study this properly, they needed a way to organize statements, and
that’s where the concept of proposition was born.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Chapter 1: Meeting the Proposition
A proposition is simply a statement that is either true or false, but never both at the
same time. Imagine a proposition as a tiny messenger carrying a definite truth value.
For example:
• “The sun rises in the east.” True
• “Cats can speak English.” False
These propositions are special because they are declarative — they tell us something
about the world. Unlike questions (“Is it raining?”) or commands (“Close the door!”),
propositions have a clear truth value. They are the building blocks of logic, just like bricks
are for a house.
Key Features of a Proposition
1. Truth-Value – A proposition must be either true or false.
2. Declarative Nature – It expresses a statement, not a question, command, or
exclamation.
3. Clarity – The meaning must be unambiguous for proper reasoning.
Think of propositions as the actors in a play of logic. Each actor has a role (truth or
falsehood), and the drama unfolds when these actors interact.
Chapter 2: Types of Propositions
Once the proposition entered the stage, it realized it wasn’t alone. There were four
main types, each with its unique personality and role in reasoning. These types are
represented by the letters A, E, I, and O — like a musical quartet.
1. A-Proposition (Universal Affirmative)
o Form: “All S are P”
o Example: “All humans are mortal.”
o Personality: Optimistic and confident — believes everyone in the group
shares the property.
2. E-Proposition (Universal Negative)
o Form: “No S are P”
o Example: “No cats are dogs.”
o Personality: Strict and definitive — denies any connection.
3. I-Proposition (Particular Affirmative)
o Form: “Some S are P”
o Example: “Some birds can swim.”
o Personality: Curious and selective — only considers a part of the group.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
4. O-Proposition (Particular Negative)
o Form: “Some S are not P”
o Example: “Some students are not hardworking.”
o Personality: Cautious — acknowledges exceptions in reality.
By understanding these types, we can see how propositions interact and influence one
another. But just like real people, propositions don’t exist in isolation; they relate to
each other in fascinating ways.
Chapter 3: Enter the Square of Opposition
Now imagine a grand castle where our propositions live together. This castle is called the
Square of Opposition. It’s a magical square because it shows how different propositions
are connected and how their truth values affect each other.
Think of it like a family tree of statements, where each corner has a unique relationship
with the others:
1. Contradictory (Opposite Corners)
o If one is true, the other must be false, and vice versa.
o Example: A = “All humans are mortal.”
O = “Some humans are not mortal.”
o If A is true, O cannot be true.
2. Contrary (Top Corners)
o Both cannot be true at the same time, but both can be false.
o Example: A = “All humans are wise.”
E = “No humans are wise.”
o Both cannot be correct, but it is possible that some humans are wise while
some are not — making both A and E false.
3. Subcontrary (Bottom Corners)
o Both cannot be false at the same time, but both can be true.
o Example: I = “Some birds are white.”
O = “Some birds are not white.”
o It’s impossible for both statements to be false; at least one must happen.
4. Subalternation (Vertical Relationship)
o Truth flows downwards; falsity flows upwards.
o Example: A = “All students are disciplined.”
I = “Some students are disciplined.”
o If A is true, I is automatically true. If I is false, A must be false too.
By drawing these connections on a square, logic becomes visual and intuitive, rather
than confusing and abstract.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Chapter 4: Why This Matters
At this point, you might wonder: “Why should I care about propositions or this square?”
Here’s the simple truth: all reasoning, arguments, and debates rely on propositions.
Imagine a courtroom. Lawyers present statements like, “The defendant was at the scene
of the crime” or “Some witnesses are not credible.” Each statement is a proposition. The
truth or falsity of these statements influences the outcome of the case.
Similarly, in everyday life, when someone says:
• “All vegetables are healthy”
• “Some vegetables are not healthy”
You are unknowingly applying the Square of Opposition to check if these statements
contradict or agree with each other.
Understanding propositions and their relationships prevents logical mistakes, helps in
critical thinking, and strengthens your ability to argue clearly and convincingly.
Chapter 5: An Everyday Story of Propositions
Let’s turn logic into a small story:
Once in a village, a wise teacher named Logic Guru taught his students about animals.
He said:
• “All cats are cute” (A)
• “No cats are cute” (E)
• “Some cats are cute” (I)
• “Some cats are not cute” (O)
The students argued, laughed, and observed. The guru then drew a square and
explained:
• If “All cats are cute” (A) is true, then “Some cats are not cute” (O) must be false.
• If “No cats are cute” (E) is true, then “Some cats are cute” (I) must be false.
• If “Some cats are cute” (I) is true, it doesn’t contradict A, but it agrees partially.
• The relationships guided them to avoid contradictions in their thinking.
By the end of the lesson, the students realized logic was not boring rules but a way to
understand truth clearly. They could see the invisible connections between statements,
just like seeing the threads of a spider’s web.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Chapter 6: Humanizing Logic
What makes the concept of proposition and the square of opposition fascinating is that
it mirrors real life. Every time you argue with a friend, decide what’s true, or judge a
claim, you are dealing with propositions. The square of opposition is like a map for
reasoning, helping you navigate truth without getting lost.
It’s also a story of relationships — how statements relate, support, or contradict each
other. It teaches us that truth is not isolated; it exists in connection with other truths.
Logic, therefore, is not dry; it’s deeply human, reflecting our desire to understand the
world and communicate clearly.
Conclusion – Logic as a Living Story
So, the concept of proposition gives life to statements — each one carrying truth or
falsehood like a tiny messenger. The Square of Opposition arranges these messengers
into a family, showing how they interact, support, or contradict each other.
When we study these ideas carefully, we are not memorizing rules — we are learning
how to think clearly, argue fairly, and reason wisely. Like a good story, propositions and
their relationships connect events, ideas, and truths, making sense of a world that often
seems chaotic.
Logic is not just a subject; it is a way to see the invisible structure of thought, to turn
everyday statements into a meaningful, organized understanding of reality. And once
you understand it this way, propositions and the square of opposition are no longer
abstract—they are alive, relatable, and wonderfully human.
7. Mediate Inference – Nature, Rules & Figures of Categorical Syllogism
Appeared in: 2022 (Q4)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Ans: Mediate Inference – Nature, Rules & Figures of Categorical Syllogism
Imagine you are in a debate club. One student stands up and says:
“All poets are dreamers. All dreamers are sensitive. Therefore, all poets are sensitive.”
The audience nods—it makes sense. But why does it make sense? It’s not just because
the words sound logical. It’s because the student has used a syllogism, a form of
mediate inference.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Logic is like a game with rules. If you follow the rules, your conclusions are valid. If you
break them, your reasoning collapses. To understand this game, we must explore
mediate inference, its rules, and the figures of categorical syllogism.
Chapter 1: What Is Inference?
Inference means drawing a conclusion from given premises.
• Immediate inference: When the conclusion is drawn from a single premise.
o Example: All men are mortal → Therefore, some mortals are men.
• Mediate inference: When the conclusion is drawn from two premises.
o Example:
▪ All men are mortal.
▪ Socrates is a man.
▪ Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Mediate inference is the heart of syllogistic reasoning.
Chapter 2: Nature of Mediate Inference
A mediate inference is an argument where:
1. There are two premises (major and minor).
2. A middle term connects them.
3. A conclusion follows necessarily.
Example:
• Major Premise: All mammals are warm-blooded.
• Minor Premise: All whales are mammals.
• Conclusion: All whales are warm-blooded.
Here:
• Major Term (P) = Warm-blooded (predicate of conclusion)
• Minor Term (S) = Whales (subject of conclusion)
• Middle Term (M) = Mammals (connects S and P)
The middle term never appears in the conclusion—it works silently, like a bridge.
Chapter 3: Structure of a Categorical Syllogism
A categorical syllogism is a mediate inference with three categorical propositions:
1. Major Premise – contains the predicate of the conclusion.
2. Minor Premise – contains the subject of the conclusion.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
3. Conclusion – links subject and predicate.
Example:
• Major Premise: All men are mortal.
• Minor Premise: Socrates is a man.
• Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.
This is the classic syllogism taught since Aristotle.
Chapter 4: Rules of Categorical Syllogism
For a syllogism to be valid, it must follow certain rules. Let’s explore them like the rules
of a game.
Rule 1: Three Terms Only
A syllogism must have exactly three terms: Major, Minor, and Middle.
• If there are more, it’s a fallacy of four terms.
• Example:
o All cats are animals.
o All dogs are pets.
o Therefore, all cats are dogs. (Here, “animals” and “pets” don’t connect
properly.)
Rule 2: Middle Term Must Be Distributed at Least Once
The middle term must cover the whole class at least once.
• Example:
o All cats are animals.
o All dogs are animals.
o Therefore, all dogs are cats. (Middle term “animals” is not
distributed.)
Rule 3: No Term Distributed in Conclusion Unless Distributed in Premises
You cannot make the conclusion broader than the premises.
• Example:
o All cats are animals.
o Some animals are dogs.
o Therefore, all dogs are cats.
Rule 4: No Two Negative Premises
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
If both premises deny, nothing connects them.
• Example:
o No cats are dogs.
o No dogs are birds.
o Therefore, no cats are birds.
Rule 5: If One Premise Is Negative, Conclusion Must Be Negative
• Example:
o All cats are animals.
o No dogs are cats.
o Therefore, no dogs are animals. (Invalid because conclusion doesn’t
follow.)
Rule 6: If Both Premises Are Affirmative, Conclusion Must Be Affirmative
• Example:
o All men are mortal.
o All Greeks are men.
o Therefore, all Greeks are mortal.
Rule 7: No Conclusion from Two Particular Premises
• Example:
o Some cats are pets.
o Some pets are dogs.
o Therefore, some cats are dogs.
Rule 8: If One Premise Is Particular, Conclusion Must Be Particular
• Example:
o All men are mortal.
o Some Greeks are men.
o Therefore, some Greeks are mortal.
These rules ensure that syllogisms are valid and reliable.
Chapter 5: Figures of Categorical Syllogism
The figure of a syllogism depends on the position of the middle term (M) in the
premises. There are four figures.
Figure 1:
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
• Major Premise: M – P
• Minor Premise: S – M
• Conclusion: S – P
Example:
• All mammals (M) are warm-blooded (P).
• All whales (S) are mammals (M).
• Therefore, all whales (S) are warm-blooded (P).
This is the strongest figure, often used in science.
Figure 2:
• Major Premise: P – M
• Minor Premise: S – M
• Conclusion: S – P
Example:
• No reptiles (P) are warm-blooded (M).
• All snakes (S) are reptiles (P).
• Therefore, no snakes (S) are warm-blooded (M).
Often used in negative reasoning.
Figure 3:
• Major Premise: M – P
• Minor Premise: M – S
• Conclusion: S – P
Example:
• All poets (M) are dreamers (P).
• All poets (M) are sensitive (S).
• Therefore, some sensitive (S) are dreamers (P).
Useful in showing overlap of categories.
Figure 4:
• Major Premise: P – M
• Minor Premise: M – S
• Conclusion: S – P
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Example:
• All virtuous (P) are respected (M).
• All respected (M) are leaders (S).
• Therefore, some leaders (S) are virtuous (P).
The most complex figure, less common in daily reasoning.
Chapter 6: Why Mediate Inference Matters
• It trains the mind to reason systematically.
• It prevents fallacies and errors.
• It is the foundation of mathematics, law, and science.
• It shows how truths are connected through logical bridges.
Without mediate inference, reasoning would be chaotic. With it, reasoning becomes
clear, precise, and persuasive.
Chapter 7: Real-Life Applications
• Law: Judges use syllogisms to apply general laws to specific cases.
• Science: Scientists use syllogisms to test hypotheses.
• Debates: Speakers use syllogisms to strengthen arguments.
• Everyday Life:
o All fruits are healthy.
o Apples are fruits.
o Therefore, apples are healthy.
We use mediate inference daily—often without realizing it.
Conclusion
Mediate inference is like a bridge. On one side, we have facts (premises). On the other
side, we have conclusions. The middle term is the bridge that connects them. If the
bridge is strong (rules followed), we cross safely. If it is weak (rules broken), we fall into
error.
The figures of syllogism are like different designs of bridges—some simple, some
complex, but all serving the same purpose: to connect truth to truth.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
SECTION–C (Applied Ethics & Moral Philosophy)
8. Difference Between Ethics and Applied Ethics
Appeared in: 2022 (Q5a)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Ans: Ethics vs Applied Ethics – A Tale of Morality and Decision Making
Imagine a quiet village named Dharamgram, where people live simple lives, tending to
their farms, teaching in schools, and helping each other. The village elders often meet
under the shade of a large banyan tree to discuss what is right and what is wrong. One
day, two young students, Arjun and Meera, approached the elders with a curious
question:
"What exactly is the difference between Ethics and Applied Ethics? Aren’t they the same
thing?"
This question, simple as it seemed, opened a door to a journey into the world of
morality, decision-making, and the choices we make every day.
Chapter 1: Ethics – The Compass of Human Life
The eldest of the village, Guru Dev, smiled and began to explain:
"Think of ethics as the compass of life. Imagine you are lost in a dense forest. You can
wander endlessly in any direction, but without a compass, you may never find your way.
Ethics is that compass, guiding you to understand what is right, what is wrong, and why
it matters."
Ethics, he continued, is the study of moral principles. It helps humans distinguish
between right and wrong, good and bad, virtue and vice. It is theory-based, abstract,
and universal. Ethics is like learning the rules of a game before actually playing it.
• Origin and Scope: Ethics comes from the Greek word “ethos”, which means
character or custom. It is a branch of philosophy that asks questions like:
o What is the meaning of a good life?
o How should humans treat one another?
o What makes an action morally right or wrong?
• Nature: Ethics is general and theoretical. It does not necessarily tell you what to
do in a specific situation, but it provides a framework for thinking about
morality.
To make it simpler, Guru Dev gave an example:
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
"Imagine you find a wallet full of money on the road. Ethics does not tell you exactly
what to do. Instead, it asks questions: Should you keep it? Should you return it? What is
honesty? What is fairness? It helps you think deeply about the moral principles involved."
Chapter 2: Applied Ethics – The Map of Practical Decisions
Then Meera raised her hand:
"But Guru Dev, once we know what is right or wrong in theory, don’t we need to apply it?
How do we act in real situations?"
Guru Dev nodded with a twinkle in his eye.
"Ah, that is where Applied Ethics comes in. If ethics is the compass, applied ethics is the
map that shows you the exact route to take. It takes the principles of ethics and applies
them to real-life situations, solving practical problems that humans face every day."
Applied Ethics deals with practical moral questions. It focuses on issues that affect
individuals, society, and the world. It tries to answer: Given what is right, how should I
act in this particular situation?
• Examples of Applied Ethics in Action:
o Medical Ethics: Should a doctor perform euthanasia to relieve a patient’s
suffering?
o Business Ethics: Is it okay for a company to hide negative information
about its product?
o Environmental Ethics: How should humans treat animals or forests
responsibly?
o Professional Ethics: What is acceptable behavior for lawyers, teachers, or
journalists?
Applied Ethics, therefore, is contextual, practical, and decision-oriented. It deals with
the challenges of modern life and provides guidance to navigate moral dilemmas.
Chapter 3: The Relationship Between Ethics and Applied Ethics
Guru Dev then illustrated the relationship between the two using a story:
"Consider the art of cooking. Ethics is like knowing the recipe — understanding what
ingredients go well together and why certain methods are used. Applied Ethics is like
actually cooking a meal. You combine the ingredients, adjust the spices, and serve it
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
according to the taste and needs of those who will eat it. Without understanding the
recipe, you might burn the food. Without cooking it, the recipe remains just theory."
In simple terms:
• Ethics gives the principles and values.
• Applied Ethics uses those principles to solve specific problems.
One cannot exist without the other. Ethics without application is like a tree without fruit;
applied ethics without principles is like fruit without a tree — scattered, aimless, and
ungrounded.
Chapter 4: Key Differences Between Ethics and Applied Ethics
To make it crystal clear, Guru Dev drew a small table on the sand, which Arjun copied
into his notebook:
Aspect
Ethics
Applied Ethics
Definition
Study of moral principles and
values
Application of ethical principles to
real-life situations
Nature
Theoretical, abstract, general
Practical, contextual, specific
Focus
What is right and wrong in
principle
How to act rightly in particular
circumstances
Scope
Broad and universal
Narrow and issue-specific
Example
Honesty is good; stealing is
wrong
Should I return a lost wallet I found?
Purpose
Guides human thought and
moral reasoning
Guides human action and decision-
making
Field of
Study
Philosophy
Interdisciplinary: medicine, business,
law, environment
Seeing this, Meera exclaimed, “So applied ethics is like ethics in action!”
Guru Dev smiled. “Exactly, my child. Ethics is the heart, and applied ethics is the hands
that show the heart in action.”
Chapter 5: Stories from Everyday Life
To make it even more engaging, Guru Dev shared real-life examples:
1. Medical Scenario:
A doctor faces a patient whose life can only be saved by taking extreme
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
measures. Ethics teaches the doctor the principle of saving life (value of human
life). Applied ethics guides the doctor to decide, weighing risks and benefits —
should they perform a risky surgery?
2. Business Scenario:
A shopkeeper discovers a pricing error that favors customers. Ethics teaches
honesty as a principle. Applied ethics helps him decide — correct the price or
exploit the error?
3. Environmental Scenario:
A company wants to expand a factory that may harm nearby forests. Ethics
values nature and sustainability. Applied ethics examines the consequences,
finding ways to grow without causing environmental damage.
Through these examples, the students understood that applied ethics is the practical
arm of ethical theory, helping humans make moral decisions in complex real-world
situations.
Chapter 6: Why Both are Important
Guru Dev emphasized:
"Without ethics, applied ethics loses direction. Without applied ethics, ethics remains just
theory. Together, they form the moral backbone of society."
In the modern world, dilemmas are everywhere — technology, medicine, politics, and
social media. Ethics provides the principles, while applied ethics provides the solutions.
Ignoring either would lead to chaos or superficial morality.
Conclusion – The Harmony of Theory and Practice
In the end, Arjun and Meera left the banyan tree with a new understanding:
• Ethics is like the guiding star, illuminating the path of morality.
• Applied Ethics is the journey, taking the star’s guidance to solve real problems.
Ethics teaches us why honesty, compassion, and justice matter. Applied ethics teaches
us how to implement these values in medicine, business, environment, and daily life.
The villagers continued their work, but the lessons stayed with the students — and
through them, the wisdom of ethics and applied ethics began to ripple through the lives
of many.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
So, the next time someone faces a moral dilemma, they can ask:
"What does ethics say? And how can applied ethics guide my action?"
In this way, ethics and applied ethics together create a society where principles are
respected, decisions are wise, and actions are morally sound — a world where morality
is both learned and lived.
9. Deontological Approach (Kantian Ethics)
Appeared in: 2022 (Q5b), (Linked with Q6)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Ans: Deontological Approach (Kantian Ethics)
A Fresh Beginning
Imagine you are walking down a street and see a wallet lying on the ground. You pick it
up and notice it is full of cash. No one is around. A voice inside you whispers: “Keep it, no
one will know.” Another voice says: “Return it, because it’s the right thing to do.”
Now pause. Why should you return it? Is it because you fear being caught? Because you
hope for a reward? Or simply because it is your duty to do what is right?
This is where Immanuel Kant’s deontological ethics enters the story. Kant argued that
morality is not about consequences, rewards, or punishments. It is about duty,
intention, and universal moral law. His philosophy is called deontology (from the Greek
deon, meaning duty).
Let’s now explore the nature, principles, and significance of Kantian ethics—not as
abstract philosophy, but as a living guide to how we think about right and wrong.
Chapter 1: The Life and Context of Kant
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) lived in Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia). He
never traveled far from his hometown, yet his ideas traveled across the world.
• He was a philosopher of the Enlightenment, a time when reason, science, and
human dignity were celebrated.
• Kant believed that just as the physical world is governed by natural laws, the
moral world must also have universal laws.
• His key works on ethics include Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)
and Critique of Practical Reason (1788).
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Kant’s central question was simple but profound: “What makes an action morally
right?”
Chapter 2: The Core Idea – Duty Over Consequences
Kant rejected the idea that morality depends on outcomes.
• If you return the wallet only because you fear punishment, your action has no
moral worth.
• If you return it because you believe it is your duty, then your action is truly moral.
For Kant, the intention (good will) matters more than the result.
Chapter 3: Good Will – The Heart of Morality
Kant famously said: “Nothing in the world can be called good without qualification,
except a good will.”
• Wealth, intelligence, or courage can be misused.
• But a good will—the will to do one’s duty for its own sake—is always good.
Example:
• A shopkeeper gives the right change to a child. If he does it to build a good
reputation, it has no moral worth. If he does it because it is his duty to be honest,
it has moral worth.
Morality begins with the intention to do the right thing simply because it is right.
Chapter 4: The Categorical Imperative – Kant’s Moral Law
Kant believed morality must be based on a universal principle he called the Categorical
Imperative.
What is it?
• A categorical imperative is a command that applies to everyone, everywhere, at
all times—without conditions.
• Example: “Do not lie.” This is binding regardless of your desires or situation.
First Formulation: Universal Law
“Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law.”
• Before acting, ask: “What if everyone did this?”
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
• If the action cannot be universalized, it is immoral.
• Example: If everyone lied, trust would collapse. Therefore, lying is always wrong.
Second Formulation: Humanity as an End
“Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another,
always as an end and never merely as a means.”
• Never use people as tools for your own gain.
• Example: Cheating a friend for money treats them as a means, not as an end.
Third Formulation: Kingdom of Ends
• Imagine a community where everyone follows universal moral laws.
• Act as if you are both a law-maker and law-follower in this moral kingdom.
The categorical imperative is like a moral compass—it points us to what is
universally right.
Chapter 5: Deontology vs. Consequentialism
To understand Kant better, let’s contrast him with utilitarianism (a consequentialist
theory).
• Utilitarianism: An action is right if it produces the greatest happiness for the
greatest number.
• Kantian Ethics: An action is right if it is done from duty, regardless of
consequences.
Example:
• A doctor has five patients needing organ transplants. One healthy person could
save them all if sacrificed.
• Utilitarianism might justify sacrificing one to save five.
• Kantian ethics says this is wrong—you cannot treat a person as a mere means.
Kant protects human dignity and rights, even against majority interests.
Chapter 6: Strengths of Kantian Ethics
1. Clarity and Universality
o Provides clear rules: no lying, no killing, no exploitation.
o Morality is not relative—it is universal.
2. Respect for Human Dignity
o Every person is valuable, never a tool.
o Basis for modern human rights.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
3. Moral Responsibility
o Focuses on intention, not luck or outcomes.
o Encourages integrity and consistency.
Chapter 7: Criticisms of Kantian Ethics
1. Too Rigid
o If lying is always wrong, what about lying to save a life?
o Kant would still forbid it, which feels extreme.
2. Ignores Consequences
o Sometimes outcomes matter.
o Example: Returning a wallet to a violent criminal may cause harm.
3. Conflicting Duties
o What if duties clash? (e.g., duty to tell the truth vs. duty to protect life).
o Kant offers little guidance here.
Despite criticisms, Kant’s framework remains a pillar of moral philosophy.
Chapter 8: Real-Life Applications
• Law and Justice: Kantian ethics underpins the idea that laws must respect human
dignity.
• Medicine: Informed consent in healthcare reflects Kant’s principle of treating
patients as ends, not means.
• Human Rights: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights echoes Kant’s vision of
universal moral law.
• Everyday Life: Returning the wallet, keeping promises, respecting others—all are
Kantian duties.
A Humanized Conclusion
Kant’s deontological ethics is like a moral compass that doesn’t waver with
circumstances. It tells us: “Do the right thing, not because it benefits you, not because it
makes others happy, but because it is your duty as a rational human being.”
It may be strict, sometimes even uncomfortable, but it reminds us that morality is not
about convenience—it is about principle.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
10. Teleological Approach to Ethical Problems
Appeared in: 2022 (Q5c)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Ans: Once upon a time, in a small university town, there were two philosophy students
— Aarav and Meera. Both were brilliant but had very different ways of thinking about
what makes an action right or wrong.
One evening, as they sat near the college garden discussing their ethics assignment,
Aarav asked,
“Meera, tell me honestly — if someone steals medicine to save their dying mother, do
you think that’s wrong?”
Meera thought for a moment and replied,
“It’s stealing — so yes, it’s wrong.”
But Aarav smiled and said,
“Maybe it’s stealing, but if the act saves a life, doesn’t that make it right?”
That single conversation opened a window into one of the most fascinating moral ideas
— the Teleological Approach to Ethics.
The Heart of the Idea: What Does ‘Teleological’ Mean?
The word “Teleological” comes from the Greek word “Telos”, which means “end,”
“goal,” or “purpose.”
So, the teleological approach is all about judging actions by their results.
In simpler terms:
“An action is good if it leads to good results — and bad if it leads to bad results.”
It focuses not on the act itself, but on the consequences of that act.
So, in Aarav’s example, stealing medicine might be morally acceptable because the end
result — saving a life — is good.
This approach asks a very practical question:
“What will happen because of this action?”
If the outcome helps, benefits, or brings happiness, then it’s considered morally right.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Understanding the Core Principle: The End Justifies the Means
The teleological approach is often summarized in a single line:
“The end justifies the means.”
This doesn’t mean that anything bad is acceptable if it produces good results — but it
does suggest that the value of an action lies in its final outcome.
Think of it like planting a tree. You may dig soil, get your hands dirty, and spend time and
energy — but the final result, a tree that gives shade and fruit, makes it all worthwhile.
So, a teleologist (a person who follows this approach) believes that if the final goal of an
action brings happiness, peace, or benefit, then that action is morally right.
A Little History: How It All Began
The teleological view is ancient — philosophers like Aristotle, Epicurus, Jeremy
Bentham, and John Stuart Mill all shaped it in their own ways.
• Aristotle believed that every action has a purpose — and the highest purpose of
human life is to achieve eudaimonia, meaning happiness or human flourishing.
• Epicurus taught that pleasure (not in a selfish sense) is the highest good because
it leads to peace and contentment.
• Bentham and Mill, later on, gave this idea a modern form called Utilitarianism,
which says:
“The best action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest
number of people.”
Thus, the teleological approach evolved into a principle that judges moral actions by
how much good they bring into the world.
Types of Teleological Theories
To understand it better, let’s break it into two main types:
1. Egoism
This theory says that an action is right if it brings good results for oneself.
It focuses on self-interest.
For example, if you study hard to get good grades, it benefits you — so it’s morally right
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
in an egoistic sense.
However, critics argue that egoism can make a person selfish and ignore others’ welfare.
2. Utilitarianism
This is the most popular form of teleological ethics.
It says that an action is good if it brings happiness to the maximum number of people.
Here, the focus shifts from “me” to “we.”
For example, a government builds a dam that displaces a few people but provides water
and electricity to millions — from a utilitarian point of view, it’s morally right because it
benefits the majority.
Examples That Make It Clear
Let’s imagine a few simple situations:
1. A Doctor’s Dilemma
A doctor has five patients who need organ transplants. One healthy man walks
into the hospital. Should the doctor sacrifice him to save five lives?
o A teleologist would calculate the outcomes: saving five lives brings more
happiness than losing one.
o But this also raises moral discomfort — showing that teleological thinking
isn’t always easy to apply.
2. A Firefighter’s Choice
A firefighter can save either one child or ten adults.
A teleological view says saving ten adults produces more good overall.
3. A Lie to Save a Life
If telling a lie saves someone from being harmed, a teleologist would say lying is
acceptable because the result (saving a life) is good.
These examples show that teleological ethics is flexible — it focuses on what happens
rather than what rules say.
Teleological vs. Deontological Approach
To understand teleological ethics better, it helps to compare it with its opposite — the
Deontological approach.
Basis
Teleological Approach
Deontological Approach
Focus
Results or consequences
Duty or moral rules
Key Idea
The end justifies the means
The act itself must be right
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Example
Lying is right if it saves a life
Lying is always wrong, no matter
what
Main
Question
“What will happen because of my
action?”
“Is my action in line with moral
duty or law?”
So, while teleologists are concerned with outcomes, deontologists care about
principles.
Advantages of the Teleological Approach
1. Practical and Flexible:
It adapts to real-life situations instead of sticking to rigid moral rules.
2. Focus on Welfare:
It promotes happiness, peace, and the greater good of society.
3. Encourages Responsibility:
It makes people think about the impact of their actions before acting.
4. Useful in Decision-Making:
It helps leaders, doctors, judges, and individuals make ethical choices in complex
situations.
Criticisms of the Teleological Approach
Despite its appeal, this approach isn’t perfect.
1. Uncertainty of Consequences:
How can we be sure what the final result will be? Sometimes, good intentions
lead to bad outcomes.
2. Moral Risk:
If only results matter, then even harmful actions (like lying, stealing, or killing)
might be justified if they produce good outcomes.
3. Ignores Justice and Rights:
In focusing on the majority’s happiness, it may ignore the rights of minorities.
4. Difficult to Measure Happiness:
Can we really measure or compare happiness? It’s a subjective feeling.
So, while teleological ethics is useful, it must be applied with care and balance.
Modern Relevance: Why It Still Matters
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
In today’s world — full of complex decisions — the teleological approach helps guide
ethical choices in medicine, politics, business, and technology.
• In medicine, doctors use it when deciding treatments that may harm one patient
but save many.
• In politics, leaders weigh public good against personal rights.
• In business, companies consider how their actions affect customers, employees,
and society.
For instance, during a pandemic, a government may impose lockdowns that
inconvenience many but save lives. This is a teleological decision — aiming for the
greater good.
Conclusion: The Wisdom of Aarav and Meera
After a long debate, Aarav and Meera walked home under the evening sky.
Aarav smiled and said,
“So maybe what matters most isn’t just what we do — but what our actions lead to.”
Meera nodded thoughtfully,
“Yes, but maybe we should also make sure that in chasing good results, we don’t lose
our sense of fairness and humanity.”
And that’s the true spirit of the Teleological Approach — a way of thinking that
encourages us to look beyond the act itself, to ask how it shapes lives, creates
happiness, and serves the world.
It reminds us that ethics is not just about following rules, but about understanding the
purpose and consequences of every choice we make.
In short:
The Teleological Approach teaches us that morality is a journey guided by outcomes,
aiming for the highest good and greatest happiness — but it also asks us to walk that
journey wisely, balancing results with compassion and justice.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
11. Virtues and Values in the Bhagavad Gita
Appeared in: 2022 (Q5d)
Probability for 2025: (90%)
Ans: Virtues and Values in the Bhagavad Gita
A Fresh Beginning
The battlefield of Kurukshetra is filled with the sound of conch shells, the neighing of
horses, and the clashing of weapons. But amidst this chaos, a warrior stands trembling.
Arjuna, the great archer, lowers his bow. His heart is heavy, his mind confused. He sees
his teachers, cousins, and friends on both sides, and he wonders: “How can I fight? What
is the right thing to do?”
At that moment, Krishna, his charioteer and guide, begins to speak. What follows is not
just advice for a warrior—it is a timeless dialogue on life, duty, and values. The
Bhagavad Gita is not merely a scripture; it is a manual for living, teaching us the virtues
and values that make life meaningful.
Let’s walk through these virtues and values, not as abstract concepts, but as living
principles that shape character, guide action, and bring peace.
Chapter 1: The Context of Virtues in the Gita
The Gita is set in a battlefield, but its message is about the battle within—between
doubt and clarity, selfishness and duty, fear and courage.
• Arjuna’s dilemma represents the human struggle: What is right? What is my
duty? How should I live?
• Krishna’s answers highlight the virtues and values that lead to self-realization
and harmony.
The battlefield becomes a classroom, and the lesson is about character, discipline,
and wisdom.
Chapter 2: Core Virtues in the Gita
The Gita lists many virtues, especially in Chapters 13, 16, and 17. Let’s explore them as a
story of inner growth.
1. Fearlessness (Abhayam)
• Krishna says the first divine quality is fearlessness.
• Fear arises from attachment and ignorance.
• A virtuous person acts with courage, rooted in truth.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Example: Arjuna must overcome fear of loss and act with courage in battle.
2. Truthfulness (Satyam)
• Truth is not just speaking facts—it is living authentically.
• Krishna emphasizes honesty in thought, word, and deed.
Without truth, no relationship or society can stand.
3. Self-Control (Dama)
• Control over senses and desires is essential.
• A person who is slave to cravings cannot act wisely.
Like a charioteer holding reins, self-control guides life’s journey.
4. Compassion (Dayā)
• Compassion for all beings is a divine quality.
• Violence, greed, and cruelty are demonic qualities.
Krishna reminds Arjuna that even in battle, compassion must guide intention.
5. Humility (Amanitvam)
• True wisdom begins with humility.
• Ego blinds us; humility opens us to learning.
Arjuna’s willingness to bow before Krishna as a disciple is the first step to wisdom.
6. Non-Violence (Ahimsa)
• Not just refraining from physical harm, but avoiding hatred and malice.
• Even when duty demands battle, the inner attitude must be free of cruelty.
7. Steadfastness (Dhriti)
• Life is full of ups and downs.
• Krishna praises those who remain steady in success and failure.
This is the essence of sthitaprajna—the steady-minded sage described in Chapter 2.
8. Faith (Shraddha)
• Faith in dharma, in the self, and in the divine is essential.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
• Without faith, effort collapses.
Krishna says: “A man is made by his faith. As he believes, so he becomes.”
Chapter 3: Values for Daily Life
The Gita is not only about lofty ideals—it gives practical values for everyday living.
1. Duty (Svadharma)
• Each person has a duty according to their role in life.
• Arjuna’s duty as a warrior is to fight for justice.
• Krishna says: “Better to do one’s own duty imperfectly than another’s perfectly.”
Value: Focus on your responsibility, not on comparison.
2. Detachment (Anasakti)
• Act without attachment to results.
• This is the essence of Karma Yoga.
• Work sincerely, but don’t be enslaved by success or failure.
Value: Freedom from anxiety about outcomes.
3. Discipline (Yoga )
• Yoga in the Gita means union through discipline—of body, mind, and action.
• A yogi balances work and rest, speech and silence, effort and surrender.
Value: Balanced living.
4. Equality (Samatvam)
• Treat pleasure and pain, gain and loss, friend and enemy with equanimity.
• This is the mark of wisdom.
Value: Inner peace amidst life’s dualities.
5. Devotion (Bhakti)
• Krishna emphasizes love and surrender to the divine.
• Devotion purifies the heart and guides action.
Value: A life rooted in love, not ego.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Chapter 4: Divine vs. Demonic Qualities
In Chapter 16, Krishna contrasts divine (daivi) and demonic (asuri) qualities.
• Divine qualities: Fearlessness, purity, compassion, truth, self-control, humility.
• Demonic qualities: Pride, arrogance, anger, harshness, ignorance.
The Gita teaches us to cultivate divine values and overcome destructive tendencies.
Chapter 5: The 26 Godlike Qualities
The Gita (Chapter 16 and elsewhere) lists 26 virtues that make a person godlike [3].
These include:
• Non-violence
• Forgiveness
• Fortitude
• Purity
• Absence of envy
• Modesty
• Absence of greed
These are not just religious ideals—they are universal human values.
Chapter 6: Why These Virtues Matter
The virtues of the Gita are not abstract—they shape life in three ways:
1. Personal Growth
o Fearlessness, humility, and self-control build inner strength.
2. Social Harmony
o Truth, compassion, and non-violence create trust and peace in society.
3. Spiritual Liberation
o Detachment, devotion, and equality lead to freedom from ego and union
with the divine.
The Gita’s values are a path from confusion to clarity, from bondage to liberation.
Chapter 7: A Story-Like Reflection
Think again of Arjuna. At first, he is overwhelmed by despair. But as Krishna teaches him
about duty, detachment, and devotion, Arjuna transforms.
• From fear to courage.
• From confusion to clarity.
• From despair to determination.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
This transformation is the power of virtues and values. They are not just words in a
book—they are forces that change lives.
Conclusion
The Bhagavad Gita is not a sermon for saints—it is a guide for all of us, living in the
battlefield of daily life. Its virtues—fearlessness, truth, compassion, humility, self-
control—and its values—duty, detachment, equality, devotion—are timeless.
They remind us that true strength is not in weapons, wealth, or power, but in character.
True victory is not over others, but over the self.
So, when life places us in our own Kurukshetra—facing dilemmas, doubts, and duties—
let us remember Krishna’s words. Let us act with courage, truth, and devotion. For in
living these values, we not only find peace for ourselves, but also become a light for the
world.
12. Kant’s Moral Ideas & Concept of Categorical Imperative
Appeared in: 2022 (Q6)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
A classic question in Applied Ethics — highly probable for repetition.
Ans: Kant’s Moral Ideas & the Concept of Categorical Imperative
Imagine a quiet evening in 18th-century Germany. The streets of Königsberg are calm,
and a philosopher named Immanuel Kant walks through them at exactly the same time
every day. People set their clocks by his walks! But behind this routine lies a man whose
ideas would forever change how humanity understands right and wrong — the moral
foundation of our actions.
Kant was not interested in wealth, power, or fame. He was interested in a much deeper
question — “What makes an action truly moral?” Is it doing good for rewards or to avoid
punishment? Or is there something more noble behind morality?
Let’s travel into his world and explore his thoughts step by step.
The Foundation of Kant’s Moral Philosophy
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Kant believed that morality is not about the results of our actions but about the
intention behind them.
He asked: “If someone does a good deed just to get praise or heaven’s reward, is it truly
moral?”
For Kant, the answer was No.
A moral act must come from a good will, not from fear, desire, or selfishness.
He said,
“Nothing can be called good without qualification, except a good will.”
This means that the only thing that is purely good is the intention to do what is right,
simply because it is right — not because it brings benefit or happiness.
The Role of Reason in Morality
Kant had great faith in human reason — our ability to think and judge. He believed that
moral rules should not depend on emotions, religion, or circumstances. Instead, they
must come from pure reason, the same in every human being.
He imagined that if every rational person thought about morality sincerely, they would
reach the same conclusion — because reason is universal.
In other words, what is right should be right for everyone, not just for me or for you.
Duty and Moral Law
For Kant, morality is about duty — doing what you ought to do, not what you want to
do.
He gave the example of a shopkeeper who always gives the correct change to
customers.
• If the shopkeeper does this because honesty is good, then his action is moral.
• But if he does it just to keep his customers happy and maintain business, then it’s
not truly moral.
Why? Because his intention was profit, not duty.
Kant called this the “moral law within us” — a voice of duty that guides our actions like
an inner compass.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Hypothetical vs. Categorical Imperatives
To explain how moral duties work, Kant introduced two important terms —
Hypothetical Imperative and Categorical Imperative.
Let’s understand this with an example.
1. Hypothetical Imperative
This is a rule that depends on a specific desire or condition.
For example:
• “If you want to be healthy, you should exercise.”
• “If you want to get good marks, you should study.”
These are conditional commands — they apply only if you have that goal.
If you don’t care about health or marks, these imperatives don’t apply to you.
Kant said such rules belong to practical life, but not to morality — because moral
actions should not depend on personal goals or desires.
2. Categorical Imperative
Now comes the heart of Kant’s moral philosophy — the Categorical Imperative.
This is a command that applies to everyone, at all times, without any conditions.
It does not say, “If you want this, do that.”
It says simply — “Do this because it is right.”
For example:
• “Do not lie.”
• “Do not steal.”
• “Help others in need.”
These are not optional; they are universal duties that reason itself tells us to follow.
The Three Formulations of the Categorical Imperative
Kant expressed the Categorical Imperative in three main ways. Let’s understand them
one by one — with examples and simple stories.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
1. The Universal Law Formula
“Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law.”
This means — before doing anything, ask yourself:
“Would it be okay if everyone in the world did the same thing?”
For example:
Imagine you are thinking of lying to get out of trouble.
If everyone lied, then nobody would trust anyone — truth itself would lose meaning.
So, lying cannot be a universal law.
Therefore, it is morally wrong.
This test helps us decide whether our action is based on a principle that could be
followed universally.
It’s like checking if your moral rule would make the world better or worse if everyone
followed it.
2. The Humanity Formula
“Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person
of another, always as an end and never merely as a means.”
This is Kant’s way of saying: Never use people as tools.
Every human being has infinite worth — not because of what they can give us, but
because they are human.
For example:
If you pretend to love someone just to get money or help, you are treating that person
as a means to your end.
That is morally wrong.
But if you love and respect them for who they are — as a person with feelings and
dignity — then you are acting morally.
Kant’s idea here is deeply human: everyone deserves respect simply because they are a
rational being.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
3. The Kingdom of Ends Formula
“Act as if you were through your maxims a law-making member of a kingdom of ends.”
In simple words, imagine a world where everyone follows moral laws based on respect,
honesty, and duty — a Kingdom of Ends.
In this kingdom, every person is both a maker and follower of moral law.
Before doing anything, think —
“Would this action make me proud to live in a world where everyone behaves this way?”
If yes, the action is moral.
If no, it is not.
Example to Connect All Ideas
Imagine your friend drops his wallet full of money. No one sees it. You could easily keep
it and no one would know.
But Kant would ask:
• Can I universalize keeping others’ lost money? No, because society would
collapse if everyone did that.
• Am I respecting humanity by stealing? No, I’m using my friend as a means to gain
money.
• Would this act make me a good member of the Kingdom of Ends? No, it would
not.
Therefore, returning the wallet is the moral duty — done not for praise, but because it is
the right thing to do.
Freedom and Morality
For Kant, true freedom is not doing whatever you want — it’s the ability to control your
desires and follow reason.
When you act according to duty, you are not controlled by emotions or rewards — you
are guided by your own rational will.
That, he said, is moral freedom.
Kant’s Moral Worldview in Simple Words
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
To summarize Kant’s moral ideas:
1. Good will is the foundation of morality.
2. Morality comes from reason, not emotions or outcomes.
3. The Categorical Imperative is the ultimate moral rule — it tells us what is right
for everyone.
4. True morality means acting from duty, not from desire or fear.
5. Every human being must be treated with dignity and respect.
Why Kant’s Ideas Still Matter Today
In today’s world of changing values, Kant’s philosophy reminds us that morality is not
about what benefits us but about what is right in itself.
Whether we are leaders, students, or ordinary citizens — we can all use his test:
“Would it be right if everyone did what I am about to do?”
His ideas inspire honesty in business, fairness in politics, and kindness in relationships.
Kant gives us a timeless message:
“Do good, not because it profits you, but because it is your duty as a human being.”
Conclusion
Immanuel Kant’s moral philosophy is like a moral compass pointing toward universal
goodness. He believed that our actions should come from pure intention — guided by
reason, not by reward or fear.
The Categorical Imperative is his great gift to humanity — a rule that helps us choose
what is truly right, not just what feels good.
In simple words, Kant teaches us that morality is not about “What do I get?” but “What
should I do?”
And when we act out of respect for moral law, we become truly human — free,
responsible, and worthy of respect.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
SECTION–D (Contemporary Ethical Issues)
13. Medical Ethics – Euthanasia & Moral Concerns
Appeared in: 2022 (Q7)
Probability for 2025: (100%)
Ans: Kant’s Moral Ideas & Concept of Categorical Imperative
A Fresh Beginning
It is a cold evening in Königsberg, 18th-century Prussia. A quiet philosopher, Immanuel
Kant, walks through the streets at exactly the same time he does every day. The
townspeople set their clocks by his punctual strolls. But behind this routine lies a restless
mind, asking one of the most important questions in human history:
“What makes an action truly moral?”
Is it the result of the action? Is it the happiness it brings? Or is it something deeper—
something about the intention behind the action?
Kant’s answer was revolutionary. He argued that morality is not about chasing happiness
or calculating consequences. Instead, it is about duty, principle, and universal law. His
philosophy is called deontological ethics (from the Greek deon, meaning duty). At the
heart of it lies his most famous idea: the Categorical Imperative.
Let’s now explore Kant’s moral ideas and the concept of the categorical imperative—not
as abstract philosophy, but as a living guide to how we decide right and wrong.
Chapter 1: Kant’s Moral Philosophy – The Foundation
Kant lived during the Enlightenment, a period that celebrated reason, science, and
human dignity. He believed that just as the physical world is governed by natural laws,
the moral world must also have universal laws.
The Central Question
Kant asked: “What makes an action morally good?”
• Is it the consequence (as utilitarians like Bentham argued)?
• Or is it the intention behind the action?
Kant chose the second. For him, only a good will is truly good.
Chapter 2: The Good Will – The Heart of Morality
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Kant famously wrote: “Nothing can be called good without qualification, except a good
will.”
• Intelligence, courage, or wealth can be misused.
• But a good will—the will to do one’s duty simply because it is right—is always
good.
Example:
• A shopkeeper gives the right change to a child.
o If he does it to build a good reputation, it has no moral worth.
o If he does it because it is his duty to be honest, it has moral worth.
Thus, morality is not about what we achieve, but about why we act.
Chapter 3: Duty and Moral Law
For Kant, morality is about duty.
• We must act not out of desire, fear, or self-interest, but out of respect for moral
law.
• This moral law is not external—it comes from our own rational nature.
Example: Returning a lost wallet.
• If you return it for a reward, it’s not moral.
• If you return it because it is your duty to respect others’ property, it is moral.
Duty, then, is the compass of morality.
Chapter 4: The Categorical Imperative – Kant’s Moral Compass
Kant believed morality must be based on a universal principle he called the Categorical
Imperative.
What is an Imperative?
• An imperative is a command of reason.
• Two types:
o Hypothetical Imperative: Conditional. “If you want X, do Y.” (e.g., If you
want to pass, study hard.)
o Categorical Imperative: Unconditional. “Do Y, no matter what.” (e.g.,
Always tell the truth.)
Morality, Kant argued, must be categorical—binding on everyone, everywhere,
always.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Chapter 5: The Three Formulations of the Categorical Imperative
Kant gave several formulations of the categorical imperative. They are different ways of
expressing the same moral law.
1. Universal Law Formulation
“Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law.”
• Before acting, ask: “What if everyone did this?”
• If the action cannot be universalized, it is immoral.
Example:
• Lying to escape trouble.
• If everyone lied, trust would collapse. Therefore, lying is always wrong.
2. Humanity as an End Formulation
“Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another,
always as an end and never merely as a means.”
• People are not tools for your goals.
• Every human has dignity and must be respected.
Example:
• Exploiting a worker for profit treats them as a means.
• Respecting their rights treats them as an end.
3. Kingdom of Ends Formulation
“Act as if you were always through your maxims a law-making member in a universal
kingdom of ends.”
• Imagine a community where everyone follows universal moral laws.
• Act as if you are both a law-maker and law-follower in this moral kingdom.
Example:
• Cheating in exams cannot be universalized in a kingdom of ends.
• Therefore, it is immoral.
Chapter 6: Kant’s Moral Ideas in Action
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Let’s see how Kant’s ethics works in real life.
Example 1: The Wallet
• You find a wallet full of cash.
• Utilitarian view: Keep it if it brings more happiness.
• Kantian view: Return it, because honesty is a duty, regardless of consequences.
Example 2: The Promise
• You promise a friend to meet them, but later feel lazy.
• Kant: Breaking promises cannot be universalized. Therefore, keep the promise.
Example 3: The Doctor’s Dilemma
• A doctor considers lying to a patient to keep them calm.
• Kant: Lying is always wrong, even with good intentions.
Kant’s ethics is strict, but it protects truth, dignity, and consistency.
Chapter 7: Strengths of Kantian Ethics
1. Clarity and Universality
o Provides clear rules: no lying, no exploitation.
o Morality is not relative—it is universal.
2. Respect for Human Dignity
o Every person is valuable, never a tool.
o Basis for modern human rights.
3. Moral Responsibility
o Focuses on intention, not luck.
o Encourages integrity and consistency.
Chapter 8: Criticisms of Kantian Ethics
1. Too Rigid
o If lying is always wrong, what about lying to save a life?
o Kant would forbid it, which feels extreme.
2. Ignores Consequences
o Sometimes outcomes matter.
o Example: Returning a weapon to a violent person may cause harm.
3. Conflicting Duties
o What if duties clash? (e.g., duty to tell the truth vs. duty to protect life).
o Kant offers little guidance here.
Despite criticisms, Kant’s framework remains a pillar of moral philosophy.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Chapter 9: Legacy and Relevance Today
Kant’s moral ideas continue to shape the modern world:
• Law and Justice: Human rights and dignity reflect Kant’s principle of treating
people as ends.
• Medicine: Informed consent is Kantian—patients must not be treated as mere
means.
• Politics: Equality and universal rights echo Kant’s vision of a moral community.
• Everyday Life: Keeping promises, respecting others, acting with integrity—all are
Kantian duties.
A Humanized Conclusion
Kant’s moral philosophy is like a moral compass that doesn’t waver with circumstances.
It tells us: “Do the right thing, not because it benefits you, not because it makes others
happy, but because it is your duty as a rational human being.”
It may be strict, sometimes even uncomfortable, but it reminds us that morality is not
about convenience—it is about principle.
So, the next time you face a moral choice, ask yourself:
• “What if everyone did this?”
• “Am I treating others as ends, not means?”
If the answer feels right, you are walking in the footsteps of Kant—towards a world of
dignity, duty, and universal moral law.
14. Legal Ethics – Law and Human Value System
Appeared in: 2022 (Q8)
Probability for 2025: (90%)
Ans: Legal Ethics – Law and Human Value System
Imagine a small village named Nyayapur, where everyone believed that peace and
fairness were the roots of happiness. People lived together, worked together, and
celebrated together. In this village, there was a wise old man named Arjun, known not
just for his knowledge of law but also for his deep sense of jusce and morality.
Whenever two people had a dispute—whether it was about land, money, or even hurt
feelings—they would go to Arjun for a soluon.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Arjun never opened a law book before giving his decision. Instead, he listened carefully,
thought deeply, and then asked himself one simple queson:
“What is the right thing to do—not just legally, but morally?”
And that, in essence, is where our story of Legal Ethics and Human Values begins.
The Foundaon: What Are Legal Ethics?
Legal ethics are the moral principles that guide lawyers, judges, and others in the legal
profession. Just as doctors have ethics to save lives and teachers have ethics to shape
minds, lawyers have ethics to uphold jusce and protect truth.
A lawyer’s job is not only to win a case but to ensure that jusce is done fairly and
honestly. Legal ethics are like the invisible thread that connects the law to human
conscience. They help prevent misuse of power, corrupon, and dishonesty in the legal
system.
Legal ethics include values such as:
• Honesty – never twisng facts or lying before the court.
• Integrity – staying loyal to the client while also respecng the law.
• Condenality – keeping a client’s secrets private.
• Fairness – not deceiving the opposite party or misleading the court.
• Professional Responsibility – pung duty before personal gain.
Without ethics, the law becomes like a body without a soul—cold, mechanical, and
lifeless.
Law and Morality: Two Sides of the Same Coin
Law and morality have always walked hand in hand. Law tells us what we must do, while
morality tells us what we ought to do.
For example, law may say, “Do not steal,” but morality goes further and says, “Respect
others’ property and work honestly.”
Somemes, a thing may be legal but not moral. Imagine a businessman who pays his
workers very lile but within the legal limit. Legally, he’s ne—but morally, he’s wrong.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
That’s why lawyers and judges must go beyond wrien laws to the spirit of jusce. A
good legal system must reect human values such as fairness, compassion, equality, and
respect.
The Human Value System: The Heart of Law
Now, let’s imagine another character in our story—Meera, a young law student from
Nyayapur. She believed that law wasn’t just about memorizing acts or secons, but
about understanding humanity.
Human values are the inner qualies that make us truly human—like kindness, honesty,
paence, courage, and love for truth. These values form the base of every civilized
society.
The connecon between law and human values is like the connecon between a tree
and its roots. The roots (values) give strength and nourishment to the tree (law). If the
roots weaken, the tree falls. Similarly, if human values vanish from the legal system,
jusce collapses.
Why Legal Ethics Are Important
When Meera entered the courtroom for the rst me as a praccing lawyer, she realized
how tempng it was to take shortcuts—like hiding facts, twisng arguments, or bribing
ocials. But she remembered what her mentor, Arjun, had once told her:
“Law is not a weapon to win; it is a light to guide.”
This sentence sums up why legal ethics are so crucial.
1. They Maintain Trust:
People trust the legal system because they believe it’s fair. If lawyers and judges
behave unethically, people lose faith in jusce.
2. They Protect the Weak:
Ethics ensure that lawyers don’t exploit their clients or take advantage of the
poor.
3. They Prevent Corrupon:
Ethical values keep the system clean and stop misuse of power.
4. They Preserve the Dignity of the Profession:
The legal profession is not just a career—it’s a service to society. Ethics maintain
its dignity and honor.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Examples of Ethical Dilemmas
Let’s take a few real-life-like examples to understand this beer.
• Case 1: A lawyer knows his client is guilty but sll has to defend him. What should
he do?
➤ He must defend his client’s legal rights, but he cannot lie or present false
evidence.
• Case 2: A lawyer nds out a judge is accepng bribes. Should he stay silent or
speak up?
➤ Ethics demand that he report such misconduct, even if it risks his own career.
• Case 3: A client oers a huge bribe to ensure a favorable judgment.
➤ A true professional refuses and stays loyal to jusce.
These examples show that ethics oen require courage—to do what’s right even when
it’s dicult.
The Role of Human Values in Law
If law is the skeleton, human values are the esh and blood. Without them, jusce
becomes cold and mechanical.
• Truth – Every judgment must be rooted in truth.
• Equality – Everyone, rich or poor, deserves the same treatment.
• Compassion – Jusce should not only punish but also reform.
• Liberty – Every human has the right to freedom and dignity.
When these values are missing, even the strongest laws fail. A society that only follows
rules but forgets compassion becomes heartless; a society that only follows emoons
without rules becomes chaoc. Law and values balance each other.
Legal Ethics in Modern Society
In today’s world, where compeon and greed oen overshadow morality, legal ethics
have become more important than ever.
Technology, social media, and polical inuence have made it easy to manipulate truth.
Fake news, corrupon, and injusce are common. But amidst this noise, ethical lawyers
stand as the torchbearers of truth.
Easy2Siksha Premium Papers
Bar Councils and professional codes are created to ensure lawyers follow ethical
standards. Yet, true ethics come not from fear of punishment but from personal
conscience—from within.
A lawyer who lives by values doesn’t need constant supervision. His honesty itself
becomes his law.
The Harmony Between Law and Human Values
The beauty of the legal system lies in its harmony with human values. A society grows
not just when new laws are made but when people learn to respect jusce from their
hearts.
Law without ethics becomes tyranny. Ethics without law becomes chaos. Together, they
create balance—like light and shadow, melody and rhythm.
Jusce is not about punishment; it’s about restoring balance and peace in society. And
only when law is guided by ethics and values can that balance be achieved.
Conclusion: The Soul of Jusce
At the end of our story, Meera once again meets her old mentor, Arjun. She tells him
how dicult it was to stay honest in a system full of temptaons. Arjun smiles and says,
“Truth is oen a lonely path, but it’s the only one that leads to peace.”
That one line sums up the enre idea of Legal Ethics and Human Values.
Law gives structure, but ethics give soul. Together, they build a world where truth
triumphs, jusce prevails, and humanity ourishes.
When lawyers and judges act not only with intelligence but also with integrity, the law
becomes not just a set of rules—but a living promise of fairness to every human being.
So, in simple words, Legal Ethics and Human Value System remind us that jusce is not a
profession—it’s a sacred duty to humanity. And only when law is guided by heart as
much as by mind, can we truly say:
“Jusce is done—not only by law, but by love for truth.”
“All the best for your exams
From Easy2Siksha (Enjoy Learning, Enjoy Growing).”
“This paper has been carefully prepared for educaonal purposes. If you noce any mistakes or
have suggesons, feel free to share your feedback.”
